Principles of America — In honor of America's 250th anniversary: 114 documents, speeches, books, treaties, statutes, and court decisions that shaped the American idea — 1,222,000+ words of official text, preserved with links to their original sources.

114 of 114 documents

Revolutionary Era

Galvanized the Virginia Convention to arm itself for revolution; its closing line became one of the enduring rallying cries of the Revolution.

Common Sense

Thomas Paine · 1776

Pamphlet that turned colonial public opinion decisively toward independence; sold roughly 500,000 copies, more per capita than any American publication before or since.

Declaration of Independence

Continental Congress / Thomas Jefferson · 1776

The nation's founding statement of self-government and natural rights; the document from which July 4th itself takes its meaning.

“Remember the Ladies” letter

Abigail Adams · 1776

One of the earliest known American calls for women's legal rights, written directly to a framer of the new government.

The American Crisis, No. 1

Thomas Paine · 1776

Written as Washington's army collapsed in retreat; “These are the times that try men's souls” was read aloud to the troops before the crossing of the Delaware.

Virginia Declaration of Rights

George Mason · 1776

Adopted weeks before the Declaration of Independence, it supplied the language of inherent rights that Jefferson drew on and became the direct model for the Bill of Rights.

Articles of Confederation

Continental Congress · 1777

America's first constitution — its weaknesses under war debt and interstate rivalry are what drove the call for the Constitutional Convention.

Circular Letter to the States

George Washington · 1783

Washington's blueprint for holding the states together as an “indissoluble Union,” written as he resigned his military command — a direct ancestor of his 1796 Farewell Address.

Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom

Thomas Jefferson · 1786

Jefferson's law disestablishing state religion in Virginia; the direct ancestor of the First Amendment and one of three achievements he chose for his epitaph.

Closing Speech at the Constitutional Convention

Benjamin Franklin · 1787

Modeled compromise and humility, urging unanimous support for an imperfect but workable Constitution to preserve national unity.

U.S. Constitution

Constitutional Convention · 1787

The framework of American government and law, still in force today — the world's oldest written national constitution.

The Federalist Papers

Hamilton, Madison, Jay · 1787-1788

85 essays that explained and sold the Constitution to the public; remains the standard reference for interpreting it today.

Northwest Ordinance

Confederation Congress · 1787

Set the template for how territories become equal states, guaranteed trial by jury and public education in the territories, and banned slavery northwest of the Ohio River.

Brutus No. 1

“Brutus” (Anti-Federalist) · 1787

The most influential Anti-Federalist essay — its warnings about consolidated federal power framed the ratification debate and forced the promise of a Bill of Rights.

Bill of Rights

1st Congress · 1791

The first ten amendments, guaranteeing core individual liberties against federal overreach.

New Republic

First Inaugural Address

George Washington · 1789

Set the precedent for the peaceful, humble transfer of power into a new office — a model followed ever since.

Letter to the Hebrew Congregation at Newport

George Washington · 1790

Washington's promise that the new nation gives “to bigotry no sanction, to persecution no assistance” — a founding statement that religious liberty is a right, not a tolerance.

Farewell Address

George Washington · 1796

Warned against political factionalism and foreign entanglements in the name of national unity; read aloud in the U.S. Senate every year since 1896.

First Inaugural Address

Thomas Jefferson · 1801

Marked the first peaceful transfer of power between rival political parties; “We are all Republicans, we are all Federalists.”

Marbury v. Madison

U.S. Supreme Court · 1803

Established judicial review — the Court's power to strike down laws that violate the Constitution — making the judiciary a coequal branch.

Monroe Doctrine

James Monroe · 1823

Declared the Americas off-limits to further European colonization, shaping U.S. foreign policy for a century.

Johnson v. M’Intosh

U.S. Supreme Court · 1823

Held that European “discovery” gave the United States exclusive title to Indian land, leaving tribes only a right of occupancy that the government could extinguish — the property-law foundation of every later dispossession.

“Second Reply to Hayne”

Daniel Webster · 1830

Defended the federal Union against states'-rights nullification; source of “Liberty and Union, now and forever, one and inseparable.”

Indian Removal Act

U.S. Congress · 1830

Authorized the president to trade land west of the Mississippi for tribal homelands in the East — the legal basis for the forced marches, including the Cherokee Trail of Tears, that killed thousands.

Message to Congress “On Indian Removal”

Andrew Jackson · 1830

Jackson's public case for removal, describing the expulsion of the southeastern nations as “not only liberal, but generous” — the policy stated in the government's own words.

Cherokee Nation v. Georgia

U.S. Supreme Court · 1831

Defined tribes as “domestic dependent nations” whose relation to the United States “resembles that of a ward to his guardian” — the origin of the federal trust responsibility and of the doctrine used to limit tribal access to the courts.

Worcester v. Georgia

U.S. Supreme Court · 1832

Held that Georgia's laws had no force in Cherokee territory because tribes are distinct political communities under exclusive federal authority — the cornerstone of tribal sovereignty, and famously left unenforced while removal proceeded.

Slavery Debate & Reform

Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass

Frederick Douglass · 1845

First-person account of slavery that became a cornerstone of the abolitionist movement.

Declaration of Sentiments

Seneca Falls Convention / Elizabeth Cady Stanton · 1848

Founding document of the American women's rights movement, deliberately modeled on the Declaration of Independence.

“Ain't I a Woman?”

Sojourner Truth · 1851

Linked the fights for abolition and women's rights in one of the era's most quoted speeches.

“What to the Slave is the Fourth of July?”

Frederick Douglass · 1852

Confronted the nation with the gap between its founding ideals and the reality of slavery.

Dred Scott v. Sandford

U.S. Supreme Court · 1857

Held that Black Americans could not be citizens and Congress could not bar slavery from the territories — the ruling that hardened the nation toward civil war and was overturned by the 14th Amendment.

Lincoln-Douglas Debates

Abraham Lincoln & Stephen Douglas · 1858

Senate campaign debates that framed the national argument over slavery's expansion and made Lincoln a national figure.

“House Divided” Speech

Abraham Lincoln · 1858

Warned the nation could not survive “half slave and half free.”

Cooper Union Address

Abraham Lincoln · 1860

The speech that made Lincoln a viable presidential candidate, arguing the Founders intended Congress to restrict slavery.

Civil War & Emancipation

First Inaugural Address

Abraham Lincoln · 1861

Appealed to “the better angels of our nature” to avert civil war as Southern states seceded.

Homestead Act

U.S. Congress · 1862

Opened 270 million acres of public land to any citizen or intending citizen willing to settle it — one of the largest transfers of opportunity in the nation's history.

Emancipation Proclamation

Abraham Lincoln · 1863

Declared enslaved people in Confederate territory free and reframed the Civil War as a fight for freedom.

“Men of Color, To Arms!”

Frederick Douglass · 1863

Recruiting broadside urging Black men to fight for the Union and their own freedom.

Gettysburg Address

Abraham Lincoln · 1863

Redefined the war's purpose as a test of whether a nation “conceived in liberty” could endure; 272 words that reset American civic identity.

Second Inaugural Address

Abraham Lincoln · 1865

Called for reconciliation “with malice toward none” as the war neared its end.

Reconstruction to Gilded Age

13th Amendment

U.S. Congress · 1865

Abolished slavery and involuntary servitude everywhere in the United States — the moment the Constitution itself renounced the institution the founders had left unresolved, ratified within months of the Civil War's end.

14th Amendment

U.S. Congress · 1868

Guaranteed citizenship and equal protection under the law to all persons born in the U.S., overturning Dred Scott. It became the most-litigated part of the Constitution — the foundation on which Brown, Loving, Roe, Obergefell, and much of modern constitutional law were built.

Treaty of Fort Laramie

United States and the Sioux Nation · 1868

Guaranteed the Great Sioux Reservation, including the Black Hills, for the “absolute and undisturbed use and occupation” of the Lakota — the promise whose breach the Supreme Court would condemn a century later.

15th Amendment

U.S. Congress · 1870

Prohibited denying the vote on the basis of race. In practice, poll taxes, literacy tests, and intimidation suppressed the Black vote for nearly a century — until the Voting Rights Act of 1965 finally gave the amendment federal enforcement.

“Is It a Crime for a Citizen to Vote?”

Susan B. Anthony · 1873

Delivered after her arrest for voting; argued the Constitution already guaranteed women's suffrage.

“I Will Fight No More Forever”

Chief Joseph · 1877

Surrender speech that became a lasting statement on the human cost of U.S. westward expansion for Native nations.

The New Colossus

Emma Lazarus · 1883

The sonnet mounted inside the Statue of Liberty's pedestal — “Give me your tired, your poor, your huddled masses yearning to breathe free” — that recast the statue as the symbol of American welcome.

Ex parte Crow Dog

U.S. Supreme Court · 1883

Freed a Brulé Lakota man sentenced to hang for a killing already resolved under tribal law, holding that federal courts had no jurisdiction over crimes between Indians — a recognition of tribal law that Congress overrode two years later.

Major Crimes Act

U.S. Congress · 1885

Congress's answer to Crow Dog: placed a list of serious offenses committed by Indians in Indian country under federal jurisdiction, the first direct federal intrusion into internal tribal criminal law.

Dawes Act

U.S. Congress · 1887

Broke communally held reservations into individual allotments and opened the “surplus” to white settlement — the policy that cost tribes about two-thirds of their remaining land, some 90 million acres, in under 50 years.

Southern Horrors: Lynch Law in All Its Phases

Ida B. Wells · 1892

Investigative pamphlet that documented and refuted the pretexts used to justify lynching.

Atlanta Compromise Address

Booker T. Washington · 1895

Proposed Black economic advancement through vocational education in exchange for accepting segregation; the era's most debated statement on racial strategy.

“Cross of Gold” Speech

William Jennings Bryan · 1896

Electrified the Democratic National Convention and reoriented the party around economic populism and the free-silver movement.

Plessy v. Ferguson

U.S. Supreme Court · 1896

Blessed “separate but equal” segregation for six decades; Justice Harlan's lone dissent — “our Constitution is color-blind” — became the argument that finally prevailed in Brown.

Progressive Era & World Wars

The Souls of Black Folk

W.E.B. Du Bois · 1903

Introduced the concept of “double consciousness” and challenged Booker T. Washington's accommodationism; a foundational text of Black political thought.

Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock

U.S. Supreme Court · 1903

Held that Congress may abrogate Indian treaties unilaterally and that its good faith in doing so is not reviewable by courts — later called “the Indians' Dred Scott” for removing the last legal check on Congress.

Niagara Movement Declaration of Principles

W.E.B. Du Bois and others · 1905

First organized demand by Black leaders for full civil and political equality; direct forerunner of the NAACP.

“The Man in the Arena” (Citizenship in a Republic)

Theodore Roosevelt · 1910

Celebrated striving over criticism; one of the most quoted passages in American oratory.

Fourteen Points Address

Woodrow Wilson · 1918

Laid out U.S. war aims and a vision for lasting peace after WWI, including the League of Nations.

19th Amendment

U.S. Congress · 1920

Constitutionalized women's suffrage after a seventy-year campaign — the largest single expansion of the American electorate.

First Inaugural Address

Franklin D. Roosevelt · 1933

“The only thing we have to fear is fear itself” — steadied the nation at the depth of the Great Depression.

Indian Reorganization Act

U.S. Congress · 1934

Ended allotment, restored tribal landholding, and allowed tribes to adopt constitutions and charter corporations — the “Indian New Deal” that made the modern tribal government possible.

Social Security Act

U.S. Congress · 1935

Created the nation's system of old-age insurance and unemployment compensation — the foundation of the American social safety net.

“Four Freedoms” Speech

Franklin D. Roosevelt · 1941

Defined freedom of speech, freedom of worship, freedom from want, and freedom from fear as universal rights; shaped WWII war aims and later the UN Declaration of Human Rights.

Executive Order 8802

Franklin D. Roosevelt · 1941

Banned discrimination in the defense industry — the first federal action against employment discrimination.

“Day of Infamy” Address

Franklin D. Roosevelt · 1941

Asked Congress to declare war on Japan after Pearl Harbor; unified the country for WWII virtually overnight.

Executive Order 9066

Franklin D. Roosevelt · 1942

Authorized the wartime removal and incarceration of 120,000 Japanese Americans — preserved as a warning of what fear can do to constitutional rights.

Korematsu v. United States

U.S. Supreme Court · 1944

Upheld the internment of Japanese Americans; Justice Jackson's dissent warned the precedent “lies about like a loaded weapon” — formally repudiated by the Court in 2018.

Civil Rights Era & Postwar

Truman Doctrine

Harry S. Truman · 1947

Committed the United States to support free peoples resisting subjugation — the address that defined American foreign policy for the Cold War.

Executive Order 9981

Harry Truman · 1948

Desegregated the United States armed forces by executive order — six years before Brown, and proof the presidency could act on civil rights without waiting for Congress or the courts. Military integration became a working model for the desegregation battles that followed.

Special Message to the Congress on Civil Rights

Harry Truman · 1948

First presidential civil rights legislative package proposed since Reconstruction.

House Concurrent Resolution 108

U.S. Congress · 1953

Declared it federal policy to end tribes' status as wards “as rapidly as possible,” opening the termination era that withdrew federal recognition from more than 100 tribes and dissolved their land base.

Brown v. Board of Education

U.S. Supreme Court · 1954

Declared racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional under the 14th Amendment's Equal Protection Clause, overturning Plessy's “separate but equal.” The unanimous ruling supplied the legal foundation of the modern civil rights movement.

Executive Order 10730

Dwight D. Eisenhower · 1957

Sent federal troops to enforce school desegregation in Little Rock, Arkansas.

Farewell Address

Dwight D. Eisenhower · 1961

Warned of the growing “military-industrial complex” and its influence on American democracy.

Inaugural Address

John F. Kennedy · 1961

“Ask not what your country can do for you” — defined a generation's sense of civic duty.

“We Choose to Go to the Moon”

John F. Kennedy · 1962

Kennedy's Rice University address setting the Moon landing as a national goal — “not because they are easy, but because they are hard” — the charter of the American space program.

Radio and Television Report to the American People on Civil Rights

John F. Kennedy · 1963

Framed civil rights as a moral issue “as old as the scriptures and as clear as the American Constitution.”

Civil Rights Act of 1964

U.S. Congress · 1964

Outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin in employment and public accommodations — the most sweeping civil rights legislation since Reconstruction, upheld unanimously by the Supreme Court under Congress's commerce power.

“The American Promise” Address

Lyndon B. Johnson · 1965

Announced the Voting Rights Act in the wake of Selma; “We shall overcome.”

Voting Rights Act of 1965

U.S. Congress · 1965

Banned racial discrimination in voting and put federal enforcement behind the 15th Amendment for the first time. Black voter registration in the Deep South roughly doubled within five years — one of the most direct expansions of democratic participation in American history.

Miranda v. Arizona

U.S. Supreme Court · 1966

Required police to inform suspects of their rights to silence and counsel — the source of the Miranda warning recited in every American arrest since.

Loving v. Virginia

U.S. Supreme Court · 1967

Struck down state bans on interracial marriage under the 14th Amendment's Equal Protection and Due Process Clauses, holding that the freedom to marry belongs to the individual, not the state — reasoning later central to Obergefell.

Indian Civil Rights Act

U.S. Congress · 1968

Applied most Bill of Rights protections to tribal governments while preserving tribal sovereignty, and required tribal consent before a state could assume jurisdiction — ending the unilateral transfers Public Law 280 had allowed.

Modern Era

Kerner Commission Report

National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders · 1968

Warned the U.S. was “moving toward two societies, one Black, one white — separate and unequal” after a summer of urban unrest.

Special Message to the Congress on Indian Affairs

Richard Nixon · 1970

Repudiated termination and set self-determination as federal policy — “the Indian future is determined by Indian acts and Indian decisions” — the turning point that still governs federal Indian policy.

New York Times Co. v. United States

U.S. Supreme Court · 1971

The Pentagon Papers case — rejected prior restraint of the press even on national-security grounds, securing the American rule that the government almost never may censor before publication.

Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act

U.S. Congress · 1971

Extinguished aboriginal land claims across Alaska in exchange for 44 million acres and $962.5 million paid to Native-owned regional and village corporations — a settlement built on corporations rather than reservations.

Roe v. Wade

U.S. Supreme Court · 1973

Recognized a constitutional right to abortion, grounded in the 14th Amendment's protection of personal liberty and privacy. For supporters, the ruling expanded women's freedom to make their own medical and family decisions — control over the timing of children shaped access to education, careers, and economic independence. Critics argued the Constitution left the question to the states and their voters. The decision defined a half-century of constitutional debate until Dobbs overturned it in 2022.

Address Announcing Decision to Resign the Office of President

Richard Nixon · 1974

The first and only U.S. presidential resignation, ending the Watergate crisis.

United States v. Nixon

U.S. Supreme Court · 1974

Ruled that executive privilege does not shield a president from a criminal subpoena; forced release of the Watergate tapes.

Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act

U.S. Congress · 1975

Let tribes contract to run the federal programs meant for them — schools, clinics, courts, social services — turning self-determination from a stated policy into an operating one.

Regents of the University of California v. Bakke

U.S. Supreme Court · 1978

Upheld the consideration of race in college admissions while barring rigid racial quotas.

American Indian Religious Freedom Act

U.S. Congress · 1978

Made it federal policy to protect access to sacred sites, possession of sacred objects, and traditional worship, after a century in which the government suppressed ceremonies such as the Sun Dance and the Potlatch.

Indian Child Welfare Act

U.S. Congress · 1978

Passed after surveys found that between a quarter and a third of all Native children had been separated from their families, it gave tribes a role in custody proceedings and set placement preferences favoring kin and tribe.

“Crisis of Confidence” Address

Jimmy Carter · 1979

Diagnosed a national loss of purpose amid the energy crisis; later nicknamed the “malaise speech.”

United States v. Sioux Nation of Indians

U.S. Supreme Court · 1980

Held that seizing the Black Hills was a Fifth Amendment taking requiring just compensation, quoting the finding that “a more ripe and rank case of dishonorable dealings will never, in all probability, be found in our history.” The Sioux have refused the money ever since.

Address on the Explosion of the Space Shuttle Challenger

Ronald Reagan · 1986

Consoled a grieving nation after the shuttle disaster; the astronauts “slipped the surly bonds of earth to touch the face of God.”

Remarks at the Brandenburg Gate

Ronald Reagan · 1987

“Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall” — became a symbol of the Cold War's end.

Farewell Address to the Nation

Ronald Reagan · 1989

Reflected on restoring national pride and described America as a “shining city on a hill.”

Americans with Disabilities Act

U.S. Congress · 1990

The world's first comprehensive civil-rights law for people with disabilities — banning discrimination in employment and public life and mandating accessible public spaces.

Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act

U.S. Congress · 1990

Required federal agencies and federally funded museums to inventory and return Native human remains, funerary objects, and sacred items, and made trafficking in Native remains a federal crime.

Address on the Persian Gulf Crisis

George H.W. Bush · 1991

Announced the U.S.-led international coalition's response to Iraq's invasion of Kuwait.

Remarks at the Oklahoma City Memorial Service

Bill Clinton · 1995

The national response to the deadliest act of domestic terrorism in U.S. history.

Address to the Nation on the Terrorist Attacks

George W. Bush · 2001

The first presidential address after 9/11, delivered from the Oval Office hours after the attacks.

Address Before a Joint Session of Congress on the 9/11 Response

George W. Bush · 2001

“Freedom and fear are at war” — rallied Congress and U.S. allies, including NATO's first-ever invocation of Article 5, behind the response to 9/11.

Remarks on the Death of Usama bin Laden

Barack Obama · 2011

Announced the operation that killed al-Qaeda's leader nearly a decade after 9/11.

Obergefell v. Hodges

U.S. Supreme Court · 2015

Legalized same-sex marriage nationwide under the 14th Amendment, extending Loving's holding that marriage is a fundamental liberty. The dissents argued the question belonged to voters rather than courts — the same debate over judicial power and democratic process later at the center of Dobbs.

Remarks on the 50th Anniversary of the Selma Marches

Barack Obama · 2015

Delivered at the foot of the Edmund Pettus Bridge, the first Black president's meditation on Selma as the place where “the idea of a just America… was finally loosed upon the world.”

Statement on Signing the First Step Act

Donald Trump · 2018

Bipartisan federal criminal justice reform bill, passed with rare across-the-aisle support from both parties in Congress.

McGirt v. Oklahoma

U.S. Supreme Court · 2020

Held that Congress never disestablished the Muscogee (Creek) reservation, so much of eastern Oklahoma remains Indian country: “If Congress wishes to withdraw its promises, it must say so.”

Address on the First Anniversary of the COVID-19 Pandemic

Joe Biden · 2021

Marked over 500,000 U.S. deaths and outlined the vaccination effort to reopen the country.

Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization

U.S. Supreme Court · 2022

Overturned Roe v. Wade after 49 years, holding that the Constitution does not confer a right to abortion and returning the question to the people's elected representatives. A landmark of federalism and states' rights: authority over abortion law shifted back to the states, whose laws now differ widely. The ruling reopened enduring constitutional questions — how unenumerated rights are recognized, when precedent should stand, and which decisions belong to courts versus voters — questions on which Americans remain deeply and sincerely divided.